    The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geology of Button Bay State Park, by
    Harry W. Dodge, Jr.

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
    the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
    www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
    to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.

    Title: The Geology of Button Bay State Park

    Author: Harry W. Dodge, Jr.

    Release Date: January 25, 2020 [EBook #61230]

    Language: English

    Character set encoding: UTF-8

    *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGY OF BUTTON BAY STATE PARK ***

    Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed
    Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net

Cover Picture: Selected “buttons” from the clay bank along the beach at Button Bay State Park. (×0.8).

# THE GEOLOGY OF
BUTTON BAY STATE PARK

By
HARRY W. DODGE, JR.

DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND PARKS
Perry H. Merrill, Director

VERMONT DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

VERMONT GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Charles G. Doll, State Geologist

1962

3

# THE GEOLOGY OF
BUTTON BAY STATE PARK

By
Harry W. Dodge, Jr.

## INTRODUCTION

Button Bay State Park is located on the eastern shore of Lake Champlain with lake frontage on Button Bay (see maps, Figs. 1 and 2). This Vermont State Park is reached from the nearest large town, Vergennes, by proceeding southwest, toward Addison, on State Route 22A for .25 miles beyond the bridge over Otter Creek, thence, right on the Basin Harbor-Panton road for another 1.4 miles to the first road entering from the right. Turn right on this, the Basin Harbor road, and proceed for 4.5 miles, thence, left for 1.4 miles to Button Bay State Park (see map, Fig. 2, note arrows). A more direct road is planned to connect the Basin Harbor Road with the Park, however, this route has still not been completed.

Prior to its present name, Button Bay, the “sickle-shaped bay” on which Button Bay State Park is located was termed Button Mould Bay[1]. In “The Journal of William Gilliland” which is found in the “Pioneer History of the Champlain Valley” by Winslow C. Watson, Albany, 1863, and under the date of September 7, 1765, is found an entry which speaks of “his (Gilliland) overtaking ‘the Governors and other gentlemen’[2] at Button Mould Bay, and going aboard their sloop.”

A book of charts by Captain William Chambers contains one entitled “Baye du Roche Fendue (Split-Rock Bay) and the soundings taken in August 1779.” At the upper corner of the chart is the name “Button Mould Bay.” The first appearance of the shortened version, Button Bay, seems to be in Whitelaw’s map of 1796 which was used as the frontispiece of the Census volume, “Heads of Families, Vermont, 1800.”

4

FIGURE 1
MAP OF WEST-CENTRAL VERMONT AND EASTERN NEW YORK

5

FIGURE 2

6

Why the name Button Bay? H. M. Seely (1910, p. 274)[3] when discussing the shoreline of this bay states, “Besides shells, concretions[4], some of strange imitative forms (many shaped like animals), are loosened from the clay.” He goes on to say that a “form particularly abundant in the banks of the bay (and on the beach) has the shape and size of a turned wood button-mold (mold is commonly spelled ‘mould’ by the British), a disc with a hole in the center, plane (flat) on one side and convex on the other” (see Fig. 3 and cover picture). The abundance of these button mold-shaped concretions obviously led to the older name, Button Mould Bay which was later shortened to Button Bay.

## THE GEOLOGY OF BUTTON BAY STATE PARK

If the visitor confines his wanderings to the State Park the most conspicuous geological features, or clues to the Park’s past history, are concentrated in the clay banks and adjacent beach which border Lake Champlain (see Fig. 4). The clays which cover the entire Park record thousands of years of rather recent events, geologically speaking[5], which took place in the Champlain Valley. These clays also record a very significant phase in the development of present Lake Champlain. Before discussing the clays it will be necessary to outline some of the geological events which preceded the deposition of the clays, that is, some of those events which took place as the last glacial ice lobe slowly retreated up the Champlain Valley and into Canada. The author has borrowed heavily from an article by Donald H. Chapman entitled “Late-Glacial and Post-glacial History of the Champlain Valley” which was published 7 in the 1941-1942 “Report of the State Geologist on the Mineral Industries and Geology of Vermont, twenty-third of (the) Series.”

Figure 3. Water-worn concretions seen on the beach of Button Bay State Park. The button-mold shape of some concretions led to the incorporation of the word “Button” in the name Button Bay (Originally, Button-Mould Bay). The chisel portion of the Alpine ice ax head is about 5 inches long.

During the final retreat of the last ice sheet to invade the New England states (some 11,000 to 12,000 years ago) an ice lobe, which occupied the Hudson-Champlain Valley, slowly wasted northward toward the Canadian border. Melt-water derived from the melting glacial ice together with atmospheric water (rain and snow) formed a succession of lakes dammed on the north by the glacial ice. These lakes emptied to the south through the Hudson Valley. This succession of lakes and intermediate lake stages will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

8

Figure 4. View of beach, Button Bay State Park, looking toward the southeast. The beach demonstrates several water-level and storm-level debris lines. Note the conspicuous lack of sand on this “clay” beach.

The oldest lake recognized by the geologists is termed “Lake Albany” and was confined to the Hudson Valley. At this time the area of present-day Lake Champlain, north of the Hudson Valley, was still covered by glacial ice which was slowly melting as the general regional climate throughout New England became warmer and warmer. Soon the whole Hudson Valley region began to rise[6] out from beneath the lake waters 9 and “Lake Albany” shallowed. Eventually a rock ledge emerged just south of Schuylerville, New York (actually at Coveville, New York) over which the waters from a new lake, Lake Vermont, began to flow.

Lake Vermont, with its rock ledge dam at Coveville, began to expand northward as the ice front retreated up the Champlain Valley. Several distinct stages in its development are now recognized in features[7] demonstrating past lake levels which are abundantly displayed close to Button Bay State Park. The “lake-level indicators” or features tell us, in addition to the number of distinct lake stages in a given area, something about past earth movements. A “line of lake-level-elevation”[8] is drawn through those features outlining each past lake or lake stage followed by a comparison of each line with those lines constructed for older and younger lakes or lake stages. If, for any two lake-level lines compared, these lines are not parallel, it can be assumed that the earth’s crust was tilted during the time between the formation of their lake-level features. This idea of tilting of the earth’s surface, which is supported through the study of successive lake levels, has proven the key to the present status of Lake Champlain.

At the beginning of its history Lake Vermont emptied to the south through an outlet channel located in the vicinity of Coveville, New York (see map, Fig. 5A). This stage in the development of Lake Vermont, often referred to as the Coveville Stage, saw lake waters fill the Champlain Valley from the Green Mountains on the east to a position west of the present New York-Lake Champlain shoreline. Such Vermont towns as Middlebury, Vergennes, Hinesburg, Burlington and Colchester would have been submerged beneath the lake waters (see map, Fig. 5B). Certain high areas such as Mount Philo, Pease Mountain and Cobble Hill show lake-level features along their sides which prove that these areas were islands rising above the level of this past lake. If you visit Mt. Philo State Park, located approximately 11 miles north of Vergennes, one of these lake-level features, a wave-cut terrace, can be seen at an elevation of 545 feet and on the south side of the hill (at the level of the second reverse turn in your trip to the summit area).[9]

10

FIGURE 5 EARLY COVEVILLE MAXIMUM COVEVILLE

11

Figure 6. Looking west from the top of Mount Philo State Park. The Adirondack Mountains are on the skyline, Lake Champlain in middle background and the Champlain Lowlands stretch from Lake Champlain to the base of Mount Philo.

12

FIGURE 7 FORT ANN MAXIMUM MARINE MAXIMUM

13

Shortly after Coveville Lake Vermont reached its maximum size (see map, Fig. 5B), a southern gorge-outlet was formed at an elevation lower than the previous Coveville outlet in the vicinity of Fort Ann, New York (Fort Ann is located approximately 8 miles south of the present southern extremity of Lake Champlain). The level of Lake Vermont’s water dropped to the new Fort Ann Stage (see map, Fig. 7A). Evidence for this new lake level is seen on the slopes of Mt. Philo, Snake Mountain and Cobble Hill. These lake-level features are parallel to and found 100 feet below those of the Coveville Stage. These parallel features, then, indicate that very little, if any, tilting of the earth’s crust had taken place between the Coveville and Fort Ann lake stages.

Figure 8. Beach and clay banks exposed along the Lake Champlain portion of Button Bay State Park. This view is toward the northwest and includes a major portion of the Park’s lake frontage. Photo by Robert B. Williams.

This Champlain ice lobe continued to melt and retreat toward the Canadian border and beyond. As the glacial front approached the St. Lawrence valley, fresh water from Lake Vermont began to seep through the retreating ice lobe and into the marine waters which filled the St. Lawrence area. Several shoreline (lake-level) features are found at different elevations below the Fort Ann Stage of Lake Vermont and attest to a slow lowering of the lake level by the escape of fresh water to the north.

14

The conspicuous clays of Button Bay State Park were deposited during the next episode in the history of the Champlain Valley, a development heralded by continued retreat of the ice lobe and contact with the St. Lawrence marine waters. Let’s take a look at the clays so well displayed along the Button Bay State Park beach and see if we can piece together their history.

## THE CLAYS OF BUTTON BAY STATE PARK

The best location in the park for a good look at the clays which cover the entire Park area is along the lake beach (see Figs. 4 and 8). The bank averages 23 feet in height measured from the beach to the top of the bank. The width of the beach varies seasonally and during storms as the water level of Lake Champlain fluctuates (see Figs. 4 and 8). A walk along the beach will reveal some interesting facts about the composition of the beach and the adjacent clay banks.

One cannot help observing the scarcity of sand[10] on the beach. The only adjacent material to build this beach is clay, which here contains a small quantity of sand and some concretions containing lime. The sickle shape of Button Bay keeps most foreign sand from the beach. The small patches of sand present soon give way to blue clay[11] which, in many places, forms the base of the beach. This blue clay can also be seen in the base of the bank in the southern portion of the Park, where it underlies and is therefore older than the brown clay.[12]

Actually very little of the blue clay is exposed in the Park. From other locations along the shore of Lake Champlain and in the more inland areas of the Champlain Lowlands geologists have found many clues to help our understanding of its history.

15

Figure 9A. View of the Brown Clay at the base of the clay-cliff, Button Bay State Park. For scale, note the small ballpoint pen resting on top of ledge (left of center). A close-up view of this ledge (pen in same location) is seen in Figure 10.

Figure 9B. Close-up view showing general characteristics of the Brown Clay. Notice the vertical cracks in the clay. These cracks or joints are very common in the clays of this State Park.

16

In August 1849 the incomplete skeleton of a whale[13] was found in a railroad cut being excavated for the Rutland and Burlington Railroad. This cut was located approximately 12 miles south of Burlington and a mile east of Lake Champlain. The significant fact about this “find” is that these bones were found in the same type of blue clay that occurs at the beach in Button Bay State Park. Clam and oyster shells (Pelecypods) were found in association with the whale bones. These pelecypod shells[14] and the whale bones show that these animals lived and died in cold marine waters. Lake Champlain today is a fresh-water lake and the fish and other organisms in it are those of fresh, not salty water. Yet the blue clays (and we are soon to learn, the brown clays) hold evidence proving the existence of sea water in an area where a fresh-water lake is found today. Can this be explained?

The brown clay forms most of the Park’s clay banks (see Figs. 9A and 9B). It can be examined easily by the visitor. The bank is composed of clay and variable amounts of fine sand[15] in thin lens-shaped bodies. The hard dry outer clay, if rain has not just fallen, of the upper 15 feet of the bank appears light brown or tan-white and commonly contains interspersed white and blue streaks. In the section of the bank which was the object of detailed study, two conspicuous convoluted beds[16] were found, one 5 feet above the beach, the other nearly 2 feet above the first.

Shells of pelecypods[17] occur at two and perhaps three levels within the bank. They can be seen easily in many slumped clay bodies along the beach (see Fig. 10, in which the shells are mainly Macoma and Saxicava). These shells once belonged to living animals whose very close relatives and identical younger generations are found living today in cold Arctic 17 waters. Brown clays were deposited in a marine Champlain Sea. How did these marine waters get into the Champlain Valley?

Figure 10. Close-up view showing the pelecypod (clam) shells which occur within the Brown Clays. Note small Ballpoint pen for scale. These shells tell us of the marine origin for these clays. The pelecypods here are Saxicava and Macoma.

Remember from the previous discussion of Lake Vermont that as the Champlain ice lobe retreated into Canada, fresh water from Lake Vermont began to seep through the ice lobe into the St. Lawrence Valley. This seepage caused a gradual lowering of the Lake Vermont water-level until the lake reached a stage lower than the marine waters of the St. Lawrence Sea. Soon the sea water began to flood Lake Vermont and true marine conditions were reached. These marine waters reached as 18 far south as Whitehall, New York, which is located near the southern end of present-day Lake Champlain.

The maximum area covered by the Champlain Sea did not equal the greatest size attained by the fresh waters of Lake Vermont. For instance, the sea did not extend as far east as the Green Mountains except in the very northernmost region of Vermont. In the vicinity of Button Bay State Park these waters extended less than a mile east of Vergennes, and the towns of Middlebury, Hinesburg and Charlotte would have been entirely above water (see map, Fig. 7B).

It has been postulated that marine waters extended throughout the length of the Champlain Valley and into the Hudson Valley, forming a continuous strip of marine water from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Atlantic Ocean at the mouth of the Hudson River. If this were true, New England would have been an island only a few years ago (geologically speaking). The weight of evidence available today does not support the prior existence of this connecting ribbon of sea water. Today Lake Champlain contains fresh water again, and the marine conditions have retreated back into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. What happened to permit a return to fresh water conditions?

The lakes and lake-stages discussed are known from the presence of various shoreline features, most of which are now “high and dry.” Each lake or lake-stage has its own set of lake-level features. An interesting fact emerges from a study of any one former lake. The present elevation above sea level of delimiting lake-level features is not the same throughout. To explain this more fully, the present elevation of those features formed when the Champlain Sea was at its maximum extent will be examined.

At Shelburne Falls the present elevation of these features is 300 feet, at St. Albans 440 feet, and at Roxton, Quebec, 552 feet. It will be noted that proceeding from south (Shelburne Falls) to north (Roxton) a difference of over 250 feet is found between features formed at an identical time in the past. The water in any lake is practically level. It therefore follows that the present 300, 440 and 552 foot elevations of the shoreline features are the result of subsequent tilting of the earth’s surface. Perhaps the following reference to the water level of present Lake Champlain will help in your understanding of this tilting.

The present-day average level of the water in Lake Champlain is about 92 feet above the level of the Atlantic Ocean. This water-level elevation is constant throughout the extent of Lake Champlain and is 19 not, say, 92 feet at Button Bay and 192 feet at Burlington. Again, the only way that features demonstrating past lake margins or levels could, for any one lake or lake-stage, now exist at different elevations would be if some earth movements took place after the formation of the features, resulting in a change from their original elevations.

The earth’s crust has been tilted, higher in the north than in the south, during recent times. This tilting provides the clue to the formation of present-day Lake Champlain. Major tilting took place after the maximum marine invasion. Tilting continued, at a decreasing rate, perhaps, to the present day. This tilting, with greater relative rise in the northwest, eventually reached a point where marine waters were excluded from the Champlain Basin.

Fresh water slowly diluted the salty marine water. The lake gathered more and more fresh water through rain and melting snow, and a new outlet formed in the north, in the approximate location of the present Richelieu River. The area of Lake Champlain slowly increased to its present size, and the clays which once formed lake and sea bottom became the “hard earth” of the Champlain Lowlands. Continued tilting caused flooding of the streams, especially in the southern portion of Lake Champlain, such as the now swampy Otter Creek and its tributary Dead Creek (see map, Fig. 2). This concludes the story of the Park clays. From the rocks which crop out within a short walking distance of Button Bay State Park a much older segment of geologic history can be studied.

## THE OLDER ROCKS

The rocks which underlie Button Bay State Park can be seen along the small creek which is located just south of the Park. It is suggested that the visitor walk southward (to the right if approaching the road from the lake front) along the main park road until the first culvert beneath the road is reached. Looking down the creekbed toward the lake, one can readily see the older rocks (see A, Figure 11). Fossils[18] are found in these tilted rocks which tilt or dip toward the northeast and “strike” northwestward. Fossils date the rocks underlying Button Bay State 20 Park as Middle Ordovician.[19] The most abundant fossil is a trilobite, Triarthrus, but, even this ancient arthropod[20] is not easily found in these limestones and limy shales. A sketch of Triarthrus (that portion found fossilized) appears in Plate 1. These rocks containing Triarthrus beckii belong to the Stony Point formation and are of late Sherman Fall or Denmarkian age.

One of the jobs of the geologist is to reconstruct the paleogeography (ancient geography) of a region. The different kinds of rocks present and their distribution patterns, together with the types of fossil plants and animals found, tell the geologist of past lands and seas, warm and cold climates. The rocks of the Stony Point formation (the rocks which underlie most of the Park) tell of warm marine waters, a past sea, bordered by relatively low land areas. The fossils contained in the Stony Point formation attest to the presence of relatively shallow marine waters. The fact that these Ordovician rocks are tilted and broken by faults proves that major earth movements[21] took place sometime after their lithification.

21

PLATE 1

1A, B, C; Maclurites magnus Lesueur (X 0.5). Lower, upper and side views. Crown Point limestone. GASTROPOD (snail).
2; Triarthrus beckii Green (X 3). Top view of central part of head region. Stony Point shale. TRILOBITE.
3; Saxicava (X 3). Pleistocene marine clays. PELECYPOD.
4; Macoma (X 3). Pleistocene marine clays. PELECYPOD.
5A, B; Rhinidictya (X 9 and X 1). Orwell limestone. BRYOZOAN.
6A, B, C: Cryptolithus tesselatus Green (X 2). Top, side and front views. Glens Falls limestone. TRILOBITE.
7; Rafinesquina. Internal view. Orwell and Glens Falls limestones. BRACHIOPOD.

22

FIGURE 11 GEOLOGIC MAP OLDER ROCKS

(fault)
CROWN POINT LIMESTONE
CHAZY (VALCOUR?) (Clay covered in most areas)
ORWELL LIMESTONE (clay covered)
GLENS FALLS LIMESTONE (clay covered in most areas)
(fault)
STONY POINT FORMATION (clay covered in most areas)
  GEOLOGY NORTH OF PARK BOUNDARY ADAPTED FROM CHARLES W. WELBY—1961

23

From the north boundary of the Park and along the Lake Champlain shoreline older and older Ordovician rocks are encountered.[22] The rocks (see geologic map, Fig. 11), primarily tilted marine limestones, display a variety of fossils, some of which are illustrated in Plate 1. Figure 12 is a view of the west side of Button Island showing an 18-inch thick reefy zone in the Orwell limestone. The reefy zone is composed largely of tumbled heads of colonial corals and stromatoporoids. A selected list of reference books and articles, some of which contain plates picturing Ordovician fossils, is found at the end of this section.

Ordovician and older rocks were lifted, folded and faulted during the Taconic Disturbance. Dramatic evidence for this period of crustal instability is seen in the Champlain Thrust, a major series of faults which can be seen east of Button Bay State Park. The evidence for such a fault system, which is more fully discussed in another pamphlet, is readily seen on Mount Philo where older Cambrian rocks have overridden (been thrust over) younger Ordovician ones.

As time passed in the Button Bay region younger and younger sediments were deposited over the top of folded and eroded Ordovician rocks. These sediments became rock and in turn slowly broke into fragments which were transported to other areas where they were deposited again as sediments. The glaciers passed over, leaving their rock debris behind as they wasted northward. Marine clays were slowly deposited from the waters of the Champlain Sea. Today only the marine clays resting on the beveled edges of Middle Ordovician rocks can be seen in the Park.

The history of the earth is open for all to read. Button Bay State Park can tell us only the history which is recorded in its clays and underlying rocks. As we have seen, there are certain giant geologic time gaps in the Park area, but many of these do not exist in other places and in other Parks. If this pamphlet has stimulated an interest in filling in 24 these time gaps through your study of rocks in other places, then it has fulfilled its purpose. The present interest in Space demands a good long look at the Planet Earth. Good Hunting!

Figure 12. Bedded Orwell limestone on open-lake side of Button Island, showing patches of stromatoporoids and colonial corals (white areas). Photo by C. W. Welby.

25

## SUGGESTED READING

Historical Geology, by Carl O. Dunbar, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1960. Good general treatment of what the rocks can and do tell geologists about the history of the Earth.

Handbook of Paleontology for Beginners and Amateurs, Part 1, The Fossils, by Winifred Goldring, New York State Museum Handbook 9 (obtainable from: Paleontological Research Institution, 190 Dearborn Place, Ithaca, N. Y.).

Fossils, An Introduction to Prehistoric Life, by W. H. Matthews III, 1962, Barnes and Noble, Inc., New York. Earth history and paleontology, a general guide for the amateur collector.

Bedrock Geology of the Central Champlain Valley of Vermont, by Charles W. Welby, 1961. Vermont Geological Survey Bulletin 14. Standard work for the geology in the region of Button Bay State Park.

Paleontology of the Champlain Basin in Vermont, by C. W. Welby, Vermont Geology Series, Vermont Geological Survey. A treatise on the paleontology of the Champlain Basin designed for the amateur. In press.

Index Fossils of North America, by H. W. Shimer and R. R. Shrock, 1944, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. Contains many plates depicting several of the fossils found in and adjacent to Button Bay State Park.

## Footnotes

[1]Most of the information for this section was graciously supplied by Clara E. Follette, Librarian and Museum Director, Vermont Historical Society, Montpelier, Vermont, in a letter to the author dated April 26, 1961.
[2]“The governors (and other gentlemen) appear to have included Sir Henry Moore, Governor of New York, General Carleton, Governor of Quebec, Brig. General Philip Schuyler (and Adolphus Benzel, map maker). The activities of these persons on the lake at that time were evidently concerned with making observations, primarily to determine boundaries.”
[3]Seely, H. M., 1910, Preliminary Report of the Geology of Addison County; Vermont State Geologist, 7th Biennial Report, p. 257-315.
[4]Concretions consist of concentrations of certain chemical elements and compounds into regular or irregular masses. Many times the center of a concretion consists of a definite nucleus such as a grain of sand or shell fragment. For a general idea of the size and shape of the concretions seen along the Button Bay State Park beach see Fig. 3 and cover picture.
[5]These clays were deposited from marine waters which flooded the Champlain Valley after the final retreat of the glaciers which completely covered New England during the “Great Ice Age” or Pleistocene Epoch. The Pleistocene Epoch began approximately one million years ago and if the age of the Earth is considered to be five billion (5,000 million) years, then, the clays do record recent geologic history.
[6]As the weight of the ice was removed from the Hudson Valley region the earth’s crust, in way of adjustment to this removal of weight, slowly began to rise. Some geologists doubt whether the removal of ice weight alone can account for the crustal rise and propose other internal forces as partly or wholly responsible. The fact remains that the earth’s crust did rise in this area.
[7]As the ice retreated, a succession of lakes formed in the Champlain Valley. Each lake had a level waterline during its history and certain lakeshore features formed, as they do in any present-day lake, with respect to each past level water-line. For example, ridges of sand and gravel were heaped along the shoreline by lake waves. Wave-cut and wave-built flat areas or terraces were formed along the margins of lakes or along the sides of islands within a lake. Streams entering a lake built deltas by depositing materials it had carried down from the surrounding highlands.
[8]Elevation is measured in feet above the mean sea level of today, with mean sea level being zero feet.
[9]A most impressive view can be gained from any one of the several lookout points at the summit level of Mt. Philo. Looking to the west, toward Lake Champlain, and south in the direction of Vergennes and Button Bay State Park, a three dimensional view of an old lake (Lake Vermont) can be seen. In this view the present Lake Champlain Lowlands represent the old lake bottom and the numerous hills rising above this Lowland were once islands or near-islands which dotted the surface of the lake. It takes very little imagination to place yourself on the “island of Mt. Philo” and to visualize a boat tied to a dock just below the rocky cliffs on which you stand. A trip to Mt. Philo with its spectacular view of the Champlain Lowlands (see Fig. 6) is recommended.
[10]One word of caution, the Park authorities may import sand from other areas of Vermont to improve the swimming facilities along the beach. In this case, the abundant sand on the beach will not constitute the “natural beach composition” for Button Bay State Park.
[11]The blue color is due to the presence of ferrous iron (bivalent iron) together with iron compounds in which iron has its higher chemical valence (ferric iron). This ferrous iron demands a chemically reducing environment for its formation and indicates that the clays were deposited in a shallow sea or that they remained for some time beneath a stable water-table. They contained a fair quantity of decaying organic material.
[12]The brown color is due to the presence of the ferric hydroxide, goethite (HFeO₂).
[13]This fossil whale is scientifically known as Delphinapterus vermontanus (Thompson).
[14]The pelecypods found are scientifically known as Macoma groenlandica and Saxicava rugosa.
[15]The size limits of sand lie between 2mm in diameter (largest) and ¹/₁₆mm in diameter (smallest). Two millimeters (mm) equals approximately ²/₂₅ inches. Fine sand would fall between ¼mm and ⅛mm in diameter.
[16]Convolute beds show their layers thrown into a series of folds (some quite irregular) which result from the pressing weight of overlying sediments on highly plastic layers beneath. Some feel that these folds were the result of actual flowage of the layers in the direction of their tilt, and others credit the distorted bedding to the pressing weight of large boulders. These dragged across the layers while still frozen to overriding glacial ice.
[17]The author noted both Macoma groenlandica and Saxicava rugosa (see Fig. 10 and Plate 1, Sketches 3 and 4).
[18]Fossils are the preserved evidence of past life (animal or plant) as found in rocks or sediments, for example, the clams found in the clays. They may be direct evidence, such as the actual shells or mineralogically replaced shells of long-dead animals; or indirect evidence, such as the tracks or trails of animals now preserved in rocks.
[19]Geologic time is divided into four Eras which are designated from oldest to youngest: Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. Each of these Eras is divided into geologic Periods of time. The Ordovician Period is next to the oldest Period of the Paleozoic Era. This Period began some 420 million years ago, and ended approximately 360 million years ago.
[20]Present Arthropods include the insects, spiders and crabs. Arthropods, which are invertebrate animals (without backbones), are characterized by jointed legs, chitinous outer covering and segmented body parts. Trilobites were very numerous in the early Paleozoic seas, but became extinct before the end of that Era.
[21]The folding and the faulting of the Ordovician rocks took place sometime between the closing phases of the Ordovician Period and the beginning of late Silurian time (between 360 and 330 million years ago). Usually these earth movements are ascribed to the Taconic Disturbance which took place at the end of the Ordovician Period.
[22]A walk along the beach in the direction of Button Island or “sickle point” (west and then south from the northern boundary of the Park) traverses the following geologic formations: the Glens Falls limestone which can be seen on Ship Point (actually an island off the northern end of the Park); the Orwell limestone, seen on Button Island; the Valcour formation which makes up “sickle point”; and the Crown Point limestone which is found on the Basin Harbor-side of “sickle point.” These rock units belong to the Chazyan Stage (Crown Point limestone and Valcour formation) and the next younger Mohawkian Stage (Orwell and Glens Falls limestones) of the Middle Ordovician Champlainian Series.

## Transcriber’s Notes

- Silently corrected a few typos.
- Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.
- In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.

    End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geology of Button Bay State Park, by
    Harry W. Dodge, Jr.

    *** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGY OF BUTTON BAY STATE PARK ***

    ***** This file should be named 61230-h.htm or 61230-h.zip *****
    This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
            http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/2/3/61230/

    Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed
    Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net

    Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
    be renamed.

    Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
    law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
    so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
    States without permission and without paying copyright
    royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
    of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
    Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
    concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
    and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
    specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
    eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
    for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
    performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
    away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
    not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
    trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

    START: FULL LICENSE

    THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
    PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

    To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
    distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
    (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
    Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
    Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
    www.gutenberg.org/license.

    Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
    Gutenberg-tm electronic works

    1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
    electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
    and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
    (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
    the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
    destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
    possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
    Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
    by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
    person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
    1.E.8.

    1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
    used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
    agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
    things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
    even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
    paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
    Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
    agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
    electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

    1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
    Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
    of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
    works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
    States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
    United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
    claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
    displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
    all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
    that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
    free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
    works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
    Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
    comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
    same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
    you share it without charge with others.

    1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
    what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
    in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
    check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
    agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
    distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
    other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
    representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
    country outside the United States.

    1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

    1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
    immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
    prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
    on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
    phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
    performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

      This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
      most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
      restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
      under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
      eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
      United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
      are located before using this ebook.

    1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
    derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
    contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
    copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
    the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
    redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
    Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
    either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
    obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
    trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

    1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
    with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
    must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
    additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
    will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
    posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
    beginning of this work.

    1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
    License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
    work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.

    1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
    electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
    prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
    active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
    Gutenberg-tm License.

    1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
    compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
    any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
    to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
    other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
    version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
    (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
    to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
    of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
    Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
    full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

    1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
    performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
    unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

    1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
    access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
    provided that

    * You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
      the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
      you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
      to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
      agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
      Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
      within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
      legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
      payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
      Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
      Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
      Literary Archive Foundation."

    * You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
      you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
      does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
      License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
      copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
      all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
      works.

    * You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
      any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
      electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
      receipt of the work.

    * You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
      distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.

    1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
    Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
    are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
    from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
    Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
    trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

    1.F.

    1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
    effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
    works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
    Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
    electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
    contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
    or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
    intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
    other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
    cannot be read by your equipment.

    1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
    of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
    Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
    Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
    Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
    liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
    fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
    LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
    PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
    TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
    LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
    INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
    DAMAGE.

    1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
    defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
    receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
    written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
    received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
    with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
    with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
    lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
    or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
    opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
    the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
    without further opportunities to fix the problem.

    1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
    in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
    OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
    LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

    1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
    warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
    damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
    violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
    agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
    limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
    unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
    remaining provisions.

    1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
    trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
    providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
    accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
    production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
    electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
    including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
    the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
    or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
    additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
    Defect you cause.

    Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm

    Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
    electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
    computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
    exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
    from people in all walks of life.

    Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
    assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
    goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
    remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
    Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
    and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
    generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
    Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
    Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
    www.gutenberg.org

    Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

    The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
    501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
    state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
    Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
    number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
    Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
    U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.

    The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
    mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
    volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
    locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
    Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
    date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
    official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

    For additional contact information:

        Dr. Gregory B. Newby
        Chief Executive and Director
        gbnewby@pglaf.org

    Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
    Literary Archive Foundation

    Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
    spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
    increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
    freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
    array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
    ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
    status with the IRS.

    The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
    charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
    States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
    considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
    with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
    where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
    DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
    state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate

    While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
    have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
    against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
    approach us with offers to donate.

    International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
    any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
    outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

    Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
    methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
    ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
    donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate

    Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.

    Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
    Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
    freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
    distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
    volunteer support.

    Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
    editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
    the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
    necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
    edition.

    Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
    facility: www.gutenberg.org

    This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
    including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
    Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
    subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.